tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-44581801595554268312024-03-28T20:27:31.848-07:00Paul Vogt's Research Methods BlogW. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.comBlogger16125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-85969096760208242702015-01-07T12:10:00.003-08:002015-01-07T12:13:51.685-08:00MORTALITY AND THE CHOICE PROBLEM IN RESEARCH METHODS<!--[if !mso]>
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<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Mortality</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">and the Choice
Problem</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">in Research Methods</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Where have I been?</span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">When I
last posted an entry to this blog about a year ago, I was feeling poorly, and I
got worse over the coming months.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the
spring semester, I staggered through the closing weeks of the course I was
teaching and barely managed to finish the page proofs of my new book.<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4458180159555426831#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After that, I was no longer capable of
effective work.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In May 2014, following remarkable
incompetence by those reading my X-rays, who twice missed seeing a large tumor,
I was diagnosed with late-stage lung cancer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Now, after many weeks of treatment and almost as many weeks recovering
from treatment, my strength has returned to the point that I can resume writing
in this blog—with perhaps a better understanding of certain issues and topics. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What does my
glimpse of death have to do with research methods?</span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Nothing
focuses the attention on the choice problem like confronting your own mortality;
you gain an enhanced appreciation for judging alternatives. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You often have to make decisions, with varying
degrees of complexity, about crucial matters, potentially matters of life and
death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no assurance that you’ve
made the right decision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even after you have
made the decision and your doctors have acted on it and evaluated the
consequences, you still cannot <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">know</i>
whether another option might have been better. You can speculate, of course,
but you can’t ever be sure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The choices
I had to make, and the principles for making them, are remarkably parallel to issues
of methodological decision making.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Choice is
unavoidable & uncertainty is certain</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
first principle of methodological choice is unavoidable uncertainty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The same is true of medical treatment
choices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Patients usually want certainty
from their medical advisors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And those
who seek the advice of methodologists usually do too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Certainty, being able to give unambiguous
advice, is often taken as a sign of competence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>But claiming more certainty than is merited can be dishonest and professionally
unethical.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Uncertainty
does not equal ignorance or weakness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Just the opposite is often true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Unwarranted certainty on the part of advisors may cause you to breathe a
sign of relief, but your confidence is based more on faith than knowledge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hunch-based medicine hardly seems like a good
idea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The same
ideas—necessary choices made in the face of uncertainty—have been the focus of
my research and writing for many years, but making decisions about my own health
put the theme of decision making while struggling with unavoidable uncertainty in
a clearer, though harsher, light. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Uncertainty in
planning research</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Consider
the kinds of questions you might ask yourself when approaching a research
project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Should you pursue your research
question with surveys or interviews or some combination of the two?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you combine them, should you use the
interviews to help construct the survey questions, to aid in interpreting the
answers to the survey questions, or both?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There is no way to know in advance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And, even after the study is completed, there is not even any way to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">know</i> in retrospect.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You might be able to say, “OK, this research
turned out pretty well,” or that “this study would have been more persuasive
had I taken a different approach.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But
you can’t really know; “do-overs” are rarely possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What you can do when following a research
agenda is to think of your work as cyclical.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>You make a choice when selecting a research strategy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You take action using that strategy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then you evaluate the results of that action
and alter your future choices accordingly, as illustrated below.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Choice<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Action<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Evaluation</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Atul Gawande’s take
on these issues</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">In the
abstract, such a graphic makes it all seem pretty simple.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the complications that arise when
applying the choice-action-evaluation-choice . . . feedback loop are
challenging. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An excellent source for examining the
relations in this cycle—in both medical and social research contexts—are the
writings of Atul Gawande, most recently his book about end-of-life choices, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Being Mortal </i>(2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By stressing the social and human contexts of
decision making in health care, Gawande humanizes it and highlights the natural
links between it and methodological decision making.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
first point is that there is no invariably correct decision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The right decision depends on your
goals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Do you want to give up some
privacy and autonomy by entering a nursing home in order to live longer than
you would in a less restrictive environment?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Or do you prefer to maintain your autonomy at all costs, being able, for
example, to sleep, eat, and lock your door when you want?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Is that autonomy worth increased risks to
your safety and longevity?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Assisted
living is an intermediate option, but choosing the right assisted-living facility
for you is no simple matter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And when
the end gets nearer, as it inevitably must, do you want hospital or
hospice?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Everything depends on what you
value, and, therefore, on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">deciding</i>
what you actually value.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Different
values will lead to different “correct” choices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And if you have, in Gawande’s terms, “priorities
beyond merely being safe and living longer,” such as privacy and autonomy, you
may find yourself in conflict with your loved ones.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of course, you might like to be safe, to live
longer, and also to retain your privacy and autonomy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But there are usually unavoidable tradeoffs
among these goals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no way to
maximize them all.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What to do—and how
to do it.</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Dying
isn’t curable, but many diseases are.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And it is comparatively easier to prolong life with good interventions
than it ever has been.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Medicine can be
highly effective; but practitioners applying the same techniques often have
very different levels of success.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Gawande is well known for his earlier works uncovering the reasons for
differences between excellent and mediocre practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Again, there are strong parallels between
medical and research practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Gawande’s
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Checklist Manifesto</i> (2011) is a good
example.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His argument is that in any
field where the work is complex the quality of work is improved if you use
checklists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are two basic reasons to
use checklists:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to be sure (1) that you
don’t forget something important; and (2) that you consider all the options
available to you.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gawande emphasizes the
first, but the second is arguably the more important.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In medicine, for example, do you choose
chemo, radiation, surgery, or some combination?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Only then, after you have chosen, can you focus on how to implement your
choices most effectively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In social
research, do you use interviews, experiments, ethnographic observation, or some
combination—and if a combination, how much of each and to what end?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">I first
encountered Gawande’s writings in an article in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">New Yorker </i>magazine<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4458180159555426831#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a> in
which he examined the widely varying success of clinical treatments for cystic
fibrosis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All the clinics he studied
followed the same procedures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed
they had to do so to maintain their status as approved clinics. But their
success rates in dealing with this debilitating disease differed greatly. To
find out why some clinics were much more effective than others Gawande
conducted intensive case studies of the most successful clinics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What did they do that set them apart? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Essentially, the people working in them were relentless
in implementing the protocol, the same protocol that all other clinics
followed, but not as rigorously.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Excellence
in implementation</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">After
you decide what to do, how do you do it, how do you implement your treatment
plan—or your research design?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What makes
one physician or researcher superb and another mediocre?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The answer may be remarkably simple: relentlessness
in applying the plan, laser-like focus, and fastidious attention to detail.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The same is true, I think, in the practice of
social research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, in my work
with students conducting ethnographic observations for their doctoral research,
one distinguishing characteristic between the students who make major
contributions to their fields and those who barely get through is unyielding
attention to detail and inexhaustible effort—first at observation, then at
recording observations, then at coding and re-coding, and re-re-coding those
observations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When you take these steps
you are making invisible choices, what you do when no one is looking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It can be hard to realize that recording,
initially coding, and then recoding your fieldnotes may require much more
time—perhaps three to five times as much—as the time spent doing the observations
on which the subsequent work is based.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>And, unlike with more quantitative forms of analysis, there are few
routine methods, recipes, algorithms, or step-by-step guidelines to fall back
on.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The same
kind of variety occurs in experimental research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some experiments are good enough to get
published, but fairly soon pass unnoticed into oblivion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Others set the standard for their field.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are many reasons for this, of
course.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But even experimental research
by investigators studying the same phenomena—and using methods comparable
enough that they can be summarized in a meta-analysis—vary markedly in
outcomes, as measured by effect sizes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>One difference has been called “super-realization.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Small experiments, especially those coming
early in the research on a topic, usually obtain higher effect sizes; this has
been widely noticed in both medical and educational research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are several explanations for the
differences between small experiments and large ones.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One is that small-scale, proof-of-concept
experiments are often conducted by enthusiastic pioneers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Others who follow the paths set by pioneers
might be less relentless with the attention to detail or less rigorous in
applying the treatment or independent variable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Deciding
on a method or set of methods is important, but so is deciding how much effort
you will exert when you implement them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not
only do you have to make good decisions trying to implement the original plan
well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sometimes you need to alter the
plan, maybe even going back to the beginning on the basis of what you’ve
learned along the way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It’s easier, of
course, to gloss over problems and forge ahead so as to meet a deadline. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Responsibility for
making choices—and for implementing them</span></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Do you
make your own choices, or do you follow tradition or, do you let others (who
are often following tradition) make them for you?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And once you’ve decided what to do, how
energetically do you implement your decisions?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Decision
making is hard because there is never any guarantee that you will make or you
have made the right choices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Uncertainty
is inevitable, and if you care about the results, such uncertainty can be very
stressful.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But that is the nature of
things.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no one best method, nor
is there any one best method for choosing among methods.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The
“decision problem” pervades even pure mathematics, the most abstract of
scholarly disciplines where you could expect human values and foibles to have
limited play.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>About 100 years ago, one question
was whether there was a definite method that could be used to correctly decide
whether an assertion was true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alan
Turing showed that the answer, in a word, was No.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At about the same time Kurt Gödel drew
similar conclusions about the unprovability of mathematical assumptions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If in the most abstract of fields, pure
mathematics, there is uncertainty about the truth of any assertion, it is surely
true in more messy fields like medical and social research, where human goals,
foibles, and limitations will always intrude.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Still, we cannot stop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Mathematics did not end with Gödel and Turing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nor will social and medical research cease as
we confront the fact that there are no unerring ways to choose among the best
options.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Decisions are inevitable and
inevitably uncertain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4458180159555426831#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Vogt, Vogt, Gardner,
& Haeffele (2014).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Selecting the Right Analyses for Your Data</i>
(New York: Guilford Press).</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4458180159555426831#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-GB"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">New Yorker</span></i><span style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">, Dec. 6, 2004; on line at <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/12/06/the-bell-curve">http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/12/06/the-bell-curve</a>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com430tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-54732723120548771312013-11-06T08:11:00.001-08:002013-11-06T08:13:38.653-08:00QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE METHODS ARE ANALOGOUS TO THE SENSES OF SIGHT & HEARING<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">Qualitative & Quantitative Data Methods
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Are Analogous to the Senses of Sight &
Hearing</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Qualitative and
quantitative methods of analysis work better together, just as the senses of
hearing and sight do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of course, a
person can get by with just one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Blind
people often develop especially acute hearing and can use Braille for
reading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Deaf people learn to read lips and
tend to be particularly adept at interpreting visual cues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But generally, a person can do better using
the two senses together—for example, to notice facial expressions and tones of
voice as well as listening to the words that are spoken.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Just as the senses of hearing and seeing
generally work better together, so too do quantitative and qualitative methods
of data coding, analysis, and interpretation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">There are more than
the two senses of seeing and hearing, of course; touch and smell are obvious
additions to the list.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And there are
more than two categories of data and analysis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Graphic/visual data and analyses constitute another category as do combined/mixed
data and methods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The analogies can only
be pushed so far, but the point is clear:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>one gets a richer, fuller understanding by combining information from
all the senses rather than relying one just one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Likewise you get a fuller, richer
understanding by using all data sources and methods of analysis, rather than using
only one.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For a researcher to
say that I am only going to study quantitative data or only qualitative
evidence is akin to saying I’m intentionally going to plug my ears or wear
blinders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This can lead to what
psychologists call “learned helplessness.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Self-inflicted injury might be a more accurate
term.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Of course, a
researcher might want to isolate one approach for analytic purposes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, I have sometimes looked at video
evidence with the sound off, and then listened to the sound track while not
looking at the video, and then read transcripts describing the actions and
words on the video.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But this kind of
analytic “taking apart” is usually done with the goal putting together a better
understanding of the whole.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-22360000615310678282013-10-07T03:37:00.001-07:002013-10-09T09:46:08.567-07:00WHAT STATISTICS DO PRACTITIONERS NEED?<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">What
Statistics Do Practitioners Need?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Graduate professional
programs seldom provide practitioners—from M.D.s to Ed.D.s—what they need to understand
quantitative research relevant to their work.
Future practitioners rarely take more than one or two courses in quantitative
methods, and <i>given the way these courses
are usually taught</i>, this is not sufficient.
But one or two courses, taught in an effective way, with the needs of
practitioners in mind, could suffice. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What would
effective statistics courses for practitioners look like? It’s easy to specify what they would <i>not</i> be. They would not emphasize explanations
of the mathematical foundations of statistical theory. Nor would courses for practitioners devote
much time to how to calculate the statistics they might use in their research,
should they ever do any. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What do they
need? Chiefly, they need to be able to comprehend
and critically interpret the research findings in their fields. That means they require a good <i>understanding</i> of the ways findings are
reported by researchers using advanced methods.
The instructors of future practitioners have to be able to explain
highly sophisticated techniques in lay terms, and in very abridged ways. This is a form of teaching that has much in
common with translating from one language, the statistician’s, to another, the
practitioner’s. In other words, it is a
form of <i>translational research. </i> The teachers and students need to focus on
sufficient understanding of a broad range of concepts rather than learning any
statistical method in great depth. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Traditional Approach<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="font-size: small;">By contrast,
instructors who use a more traditional approach, and insist on a firm grasp of
theoretical fundamentals and computational know-how, will not get very far in a
course or two. It will be difficult to
go beyond a handful of basics, such as the normal curve, sampling
distributions, </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">t</i><span style="font-size: small;">-tests, ANOVAs, standard
scores, </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">p</i><span style="font-size: small;">-values, confidence
intervals, and rudimentary correlation and regression. These are all fine subjects, and it is
important for </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">future statisticians</i><span style="font-size: small;"> to
probe them deeply, but if these topics constitute the whole of the armamentarium
of </span><i style="font-size: 12pt;">future practitioners</i><span style="font-size: small;">, those
practitioners will not be able to read most of the research in their fields. And that means </span><b><span style="font-size: small;">they </span>won't<span style="font-size: small;"> be able to engage
in evidence-based practice.</span></b><span style="font-size: small;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The Translational Approach<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The main instructional
method of the <i>translational approach</i> is
working with students to help them understand research articles reporting
findings in their fields. If you want future practitioners to be able to read research
with sufficient comprehension that they can apply it to practice, teach them
how to read the articles—don’t revel in the fine points of the probability
theory behind sampling distributions.
First, help students to decipher research articles in their fields, and
then practice with them how discuss, with critical awareness, the outcomes
presented in those articles. Instructors
should supply some of the articles students study, but they should also encourage
students to find articles that they would like to learn how to read.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The articles will
of course vary considerably by field, and so too will the advanced statistical methods
most useful to practitioners. Regardless
of the specifics, the method of instruction will be the same: work with
students to enhance their critical understanding of quantitative research in
their fields—its limitations as well as its applications to their professional
practice—by teaching them how to decipher and evaluate it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Practitioner-Researchers<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What about
practitioners who become involved in research?
Some surely will, and they should be encouraged. But the traditional approach, stressing mathematical
foundations of statistics and computational details, is unlikely to be a way to
stimulate practitioners’ interest in doing research on topics relevant to their
fields of practice. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Most practitioner-researchers
using quantitative methods will probably work with co-authors who have methodological
expertise that can supplement the practitioners’ substantive knowledge. Successful practitioner-researchers will
usually pay more attention to research design rather than analysis. When thinking about analysis they will focus
more on selecting the right analysis methods and less on the details of how to crunch
the numbers. Learning how to design
research and write analysis plans that can successfully address research
questions is an attainable goal for many thoughtful practitioners. In graduate and professional education, it can
be fostered by the careful perusal of successful (and not-so-successful)
research in students’ fields. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Raising Standards<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">This approach raises
standards. It does not lower them, as
many statisticians might fear. Investigating
the theoretical foundations of statistics is interesting to many of us, but it
is largely irrelevant to the education of future practitioners. Does it truly maintain standards to insist on
teaching topics that are irrelevant to students? Doing computations is comparatively easy (with
software assistance). But, understanding and reasoning about
evidence so as to try to solve real problems is hard. And it is very important. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Incentives for Instructors<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Why
should statisticians who teach quantitative research methods courses take
the approach advocated here? What’s the
incentive to change traditional ways? One
motivation is that every semester you get to read cutting-edge real research
with your students, rather than trying to interest them in the same old
textbook descriptions of basic statistical concepts. That makes class preparation much more
interesting. </span><br />
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><br /></span>
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Of greater importance, by
teaching subjects more relevant to students’ futures, you will be better
fulfilling your responsibilities as an instructor. If you don’t teach students about
quantitative methods in ways relevant to them, you make it hard for them to
incorporate research into their professional practice, and you contribute to growing
problem of the separation of research and practice. As one physician put it to me, “I wish I had
had more time to learn statistical methods, but the press of content courses was
too great—so I just read the abstracts and hope that’s good enough.” That’s a sad commentary on his education. I changed doctors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Further
reading<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The following books
deal with quite advanced topics in quantitative data analysis and do so
assuming little if any statistical knowledge on the part of the reader. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For biomedical
fields, two good books that exemplify the approach argued for in this blog are:
Motulsky’s, <i>Intuitive Biostatistics: A
Nonmathematical Guide to Statistical Thinking</i> (2<sup>nd</sup> edition,
2010) and Bailar & Hoaglin’s, <i>Medical
Uses of Statistics </i>(3<sup>rd</sup> edition, 2009). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">For the social
sciences see Spicer, <i>Making Sense of
Multivariate Data Analysis </i>(2005), Vogt, <i>Quantitative Research Methods for Professionals </i>(2007), Vogt et
al., <i>When to Use What Research Design </i>(2012),
and Vogt et al., <i>Selecting the Right
Analyses for Your Data</i> (2014, in production).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">More elementary
discussions are available in the field of “analytics.” This is a new term for statistics. It is usually as applied to studying big data
(often Web data) in order to make business decisions. A popular example is <i>Keeping Up with the Quants </i>(2013) by
Davenport and Kim.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-75926031539454420662013-08-20T19:03:00.000-07:002013-08-20T19:03:11.965-07:00EFFECTIVE RESEARCH PROPOSALS<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Effective Research Proposals<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What is an effective research
proposal? It is a proposal that (1) gets
accepted and (2) is a useful guide for conducting your study after it is accepted. The basic steps of an effective <i>proposal</i> are almost always the same whether the proposal is for a
grant application, a doctoral dissertation, or an evaluation of a project. And, the criteria for effectiveness are virtually
identical whether it is called a plan, design, or proposal. T</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 16px;">he basic outlines of the are very similar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">In virtually all cases, it is much better
to have a detailed plan, which you have to revise as you go along, than to
start a research project with only a vague idea of what you are going to do.</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Your time is too valuable to waste in aimless wandering.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">There are 7 basic components or steps of a
good research proposal. I have listed those steps in a logical order below. And, this is
the order you would probably use to outline your proposal--and to communicate the results of your
research. But in the actual practice of
conducting your research, you might need to revisit earlier steps, often more
than once. For example, when something
goes wrong in the sampling plan (step 4) a way to get ideas for fixing it is to
re-review previous research (step 2) to see how other investigators have dealt
with your problem.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">1.</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;">A
research question.</span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt; text-indent: 0.5in;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. A
review of previous research. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3. A
plan for collecting data/evidence. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4. A
sampling and/or recruiting plan <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">5. A
research ethics plan. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">6. A
coding and/or measurement plan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">7. An
analysis and interpretation plan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">1. A research question</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. A good research question has to be
researchable, meaning you could conceivably answer it with research. Considerable explanation about why it is a
good research question—it’s researchable and it’s important—is needed in an
effective research proposal. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">2. A
review of previous research</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">.
This helps you avoid reinventing the wheel, or even worse, the flat
tire. A review is also a source of many
ideas about the subsequent stages of the proposal: on how to collect data, from
whom to collect it, the ethical implications of your data collection plan, and
finally approaches to coding and analysis.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">3. A plan for collecting data/evidence</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. There are 6 basic ways to collect data: (1)
surveying, (2) interviewing, (3) experimenting, (4) observing in natural
settings, (5) collecting archival/secondary data, and (6) combining ways (1) through (5)
in various ways. </span><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">You also need to explain why your choice of a data collection plan is a
good one for answering your research question and, implicitly, why one of the
others would not be better.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">4. Sampling and/or recruiting plan</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. This describes from whom, how, where, and how
much evidence you are going to collect.
In other terms: Who or what are
you going to study? How many of them? How much data from each of them? How will
they be selected?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">5. A plan for conducting research ethically</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. This plan tries to anticipate any ethical problems
and prepares for how to deal with them.
Once you know what you will gather, how, and from whom, then <i>before </i>you go ahead, you need to review
your plan to see if there are any ethical constraints arising from participants’
privacy and consent and potential harms. At this stage, your plan includes preparing for IRB review.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">6. Coding</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. Coding is assigning labels (words, numbers,
or other symbols) to your data so that you can define, index, and sort your
evidence. It is in coding phase that the issues of distinctions of quant/qual/mixed become most prominent. You may have made this coding decision in mind early
on—perhaps you are phobic about numbers, or maybe you find verbal data
annoyingly vague. You may actually start
with this as your first divider, but it would not be effective to write your proposal that
way—by saying, for example: “I like to
interview people and numbers give me the creeps, so I don’t want to do survey
research” or “I’m shy and I don’t want to have to interact in face-to-face
interviews, so I want to do secondary analysis of data.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle">
<b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">7. Analysis and interpretation</span></b><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">. This tends to be the skimpiest part of a
research proposal. But if you know what
you are going to collect from whom and how you will code it, your first 6 steps really do shape (not completely determine) the analysis options open to you. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-41142872041731276982013-08-16T23:00:00.002-07:002013-08-16T23:07:59.837-07:00CITATION SYSTEMS: WHICH DO YOU PREFER?<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Citation Systems<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Which is the best?</span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">There
are several distinct conventions authors can use to cite the sources they use
in their research. Individuals often
have very strong beliefs about which convention is best. And professional organizations have issued
lengthy guidelines. Among the best known
and most widely used are those of the American Psychological Association, the
Modern Language Association, and the University of Chicago Press. Some research journals have their own
systems. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Is
one of these better than the others? No,
they are all just fine. They are all
merely conventions. Saying that one is
better than another would be like claiming that driving on the left side of the
road is better than driving on the right.
Both are fine as long as everyone knows and abides by the rules. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">There
is only one criterion for excellence in a citation system. If your reader can <i>easily</i> check your sources for accuracy, the system is good. If your reader cannot do so, the system is
bad. Specific format <i>does not matter at all</i> if it meets this
criterion. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">But
tastes differ, people have preferences. As
an author of text books and reference works in research methods, I wanted to
know what my readers prefer. So I did
some market research among potential readers—students in research methods
courses in the social sciences and applied disciplines such as nursing, social
work, and education. I prepared two
versions of a short paragraph, one citing sources in parentheses in the text of
the paragraph and the other citing the sources in footnotes or endnotes. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">The
results were overwhelming. In the first
group of 47 students surveyed, 42 preferred the endnote system, 5 didn’t care,
and not a single student opted for the in-text citation system. In psychology courses, the in-text citation
system did better, probably because the American Psychological Association uses
an in-text system, and it is a powerful presence in the fields of psychology
and education. But in no group of
respondents did more than 20% ever opt for an in-text system. Readers who offered an explanation said that
in-text citations were “annoying,” that they “got in the way,” and that they “cluttered
the text.” <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Convinced
by this market research, I have used footnotes or endnotes for citations
whenever possible. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">HERE ARE THE SURVEY INSTRUCTIONS
FOLLOWED BY THE TWO VERSIONS OF THE PARAGRAPH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>I would appreciate
your help with the following survey. I
am writing text books and <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>reference works for
graduate students in research methods, and I would like to learn from potential
readers your preferences about the format of the text.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>The survey is
anonymous. You are under no obligation
to participate. If you choose not to
participate just return these pages blank.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Thank you,<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>W. Paul Vogt<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>The passages on the
next page are identical in content, but they differ in form. The first version of the passage includes the
citations in the text. The second
version provides the citations as endnotes.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt;">WHICH DO YOU PREFER?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>If you were
consulting a reference book or text book, which of the two passages would you
rather read?<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>_____Version 1 with
citations in the text<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>_____Version 2 with
citations as endnotes<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>_____No preference<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u>If you would be
willing to share the reasons for your preferences, please explain them
below. I would appreciate learning about
them. <o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Version 1—Citations in Text <o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
While internet surveys are becoming
more common, many scholars (Baker, Curtice & Sparrow, 2002; Schoen &
Fass, 2005; see also Couper, 2000; Dillman, 2000) continue to express
skepticism about their value, especially as concerns sampling bias. On the other hand, several survey experiments
comparing Internet surveying to more traditional modes (Krosnick & Chang,
2001; VanBeselaere, 2002; Alvarez, Sherman & VanBeselaere, 2003; Chang
& Krosnik, 2003; Sanders, Clarke, Stewart, & Whiteley, 2007) have shown
that well-conducted Internet surveys can be as effective as other methods of
sampling and surveying. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;">Version 2—Citations in Endnotes<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
While internet surveys are becoming
more common, many scholars<a href="file:///C:/Users/W%20P/Documents/2-Vol2-wtuw/Blog--Marketing%20survey.doc#_edn1" name="_ednref1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> continue
to express skepticism about their value, especially as concerns sampling
bias. On the other hand, several survey
experiments comparing Internet surveying to more traditional modes<a href="file:///C:/Users/W%20P/Documents/2-Vol2-wtuw/Blog--Marketing%20survey.doc#_edn2" name="_ednref2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> have shown that well-conducted Internet
surveys can be as effective as other methods of sampling and surveying. </div>
<br />
<div>
<!--[if !supportEndnotes]--><br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<!--[endif]-->
<br />
<div id="edn1">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/W%20P/Documents/2-Vol2-wtuw/Blog--Marketing%20survey.doc#_ednref1" name="_edn1" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Baker,
Curtice & Sparrow, 2002; Schoen
& Fass, 2005. See also Couper,
2000; Dillman, 2000.</div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div id="edn2">
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<a href="file:///C:/Users/W%20P/Documents/2-Vol2-wtuw/Blog--Marketing%20survey.doc#_ednref2" name="_edn2" title=""><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--><span class="MsoEndnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span><!--[endif]--></span></a> Krosnick
& Chang, 2001; VanBeselaere, 2002; Alvarez, Sherman & VanBeselaere,
2003; Chang & Krosnik, 2003;
Sanders, Clarke, Stewart, & Whiteley, 2007.</div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText">
<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"><b>IF
YOU HAVE A REASON FOR PREFERRING ONE VERSION OR THE OTHER, AND YOU WOULD LIKE
TO SHARE IT, PLEASE POST IT BELOW.</b> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com49tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-4970480248525569532013-07-29T06:19:00.000-07:002013-07-29T06:19:10.726-07:00BASICS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN OR PROPOSAL<br />
<h1>
<b>Basics of a research design or proposal<o:p></o:p></b></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Research designs and
proposals tell the reader </span><u style="font-size: 11pt;">what</u><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> you intend to learn, </span><u style="font-size: 11pt;">why</u><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> you think
it is a good thing to know, and, most important, </span><u style="font-size: 11pt;">how</u><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> you plan to accomplish acquiring
knowledge about the topic. Proposals and
designs differ mainly in their readers or audiences. Sources of funding and dissertation
committees read proposals, while the main audiences for designs are other
researchers. This is not a firm
distinction; it is mostly a matter of emphasis.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Your design/proposal for this
course should be <u>about</u> 10 double-spaced pages long (15 pages, or 4000
words, is the <b>absolute</b> upper
limit). The paper will be submitted
electronically: and MS Word file attached to an e-mail. Comments will be returned to you by
e-mail. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">A research design/proposal should
contain the following elements:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Introduction</span></u><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">, in which you explain what you want to study and why
that is important. A key feature of this
section will be your <b>research question</b>. Here you might also say a few words about how
you propose to conduct the study. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">This should be a
page or two in length.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Review of the
literature</span></u><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;"> on your subject. In this review, you review what we already
know about your subject and how your study would add to it. As part of this explanation, your review will
also often talk about the methods used by previous research on the subject.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt;"> This review should discuss at least 10 <i>recent</i> and <i>representative</i> research articles on the subject and should explain
how they were selected. Try to find an
article on your subject that is a review of the literature or a meta-analysis,
and don’t hesitate to use secondary sources <i>in
addition to (<b>not</b> instead of)</i>
research articles. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt;"> Your review should be organized by theme,
ideas, concepts, conclusions, or types of evidence—anything but by article (“in
the first article I read it said . . . in the second article I read it said .
. .”).
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">This section
should roughly 2 to 4 pages long.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt;">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><u><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">The methods</span></u><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;"> section is, of course, the heart of the matter. It should be a plan of work for learning what
you want to know about your subject.
This should include <u>sufficient</u> details about 1. <i><u>where</u></i> you'll get your evidence,
2. <i><u>how</u></i> you'll gather it, 3. <i><u>how much</u></i> of it you need, and 4. how
you'll <i><u>analyze</u></i> it once you've
gathered it. "Sufficient" in
this case means enough details that you (or someone else) really could use your
plan to guide the research activities.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt;"> You can use any of the designs discussed
in our texts. Be sure to use the texts’
discussions when constructing your design.
For example, if the text explains potential problems—e.g., with validity
(internal or external), with reliability, or with unwanted variance that needs
to be controlled--of a particular design, be sure to address these. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">This section should be approximately 4 to 5 pages long.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Notes: Your proposal/paper probably will not have
much of a conclusion since you won't actually be the doing research; it is a <u>proposed</u>
study. Your design does not have to be
confined to something you could do this semester. It may be best for you to think of it as a
design or a proposal for a dissertation; this would be a plan of work that
would extend over a few semesters.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-30600248548355707962013-04-13T09:57:00.000-07:002013-04-14T10:36:33.327-07:00MISSING ANSWERS TO YOUR SURVEY QUESTIONS<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Missing Data: </span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">When people don’t answer survey questions</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Elsewhere I’ve called <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">missing data</b> “the silent killer of valid inference.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is a silent killer, and a problem that is
easy to overlook, because, well . . . it’s missing, not there.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Missing data is a problem all forms of research—from
interviews to experiments—but it is an especially tricky and often overlooked
issue in survey research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kathy Godfrey
recently posted (in an e-mail discussion) a very clear and concise description of the problem and how to
handle it. Her comments are so
helpful that, with her permission, I’m re-posting them here.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">What you need to do when writing,
conducting, and analyzing a survey is make sure to get the maximum amount of
information from the people-- probably a large number of people--who do not
respond the way you had hoped.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kathy’s “four flavors” of non-response are
actually four important variables.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
researcher can learn a lot by coding and analyzing them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Original
Message:<br />
Sent: 04-10-2013<br />
From: Katherine Godfrey<br />
Subject: Multiple imputation of "I don't know/ I don't remember"<br />
<br />
Depending on the situation, there are at least four "flavors" of
non-response, any one of which might be what's behind someone failing to answer
a question (and this ignores the people who meant to respond, but simply
goofed):<br />
<br />
1. No Answer (deliberately not answering, and telling you so)<br />
2. Does Not Apply (the question does not apply to respondent, and thus can't be
answered)<br />
3. Don't Know/Don't Remember (would answer if could, but can't)<br />
4. No Preference/Don't Care (this is actually a real answer)<br />
<br />
Here's an example to hopefully clarify:<br />
Imagine a pollster asking people on the street, "Who will you vote for in
the Senatorial election next week, Smith or Jones?"<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The following answers are all possible:<br />
<br />
1. "None of your business!" (No Answer)<br />
2. "I don't live in this state." (Does Not Apply)<br />
3. "I haven't decided yet; I'm still sorting through the candidates'
stands on the issues." (Don't Know)<br />
4. "They're both the same; I may just toss a coin in the voting booth--or
stay home." (No Preference)<br />
Not to mention the people that just walk past the pollster, leaving him to wonder
if they're deliberately ignoring him or simply didn't hear him.<br />
<br />
The second category (Does Not Apply) can turn up as "structural
zeroes" in frequency analysis contexts. The difference between "Don't
Know" and "No Preference" is subtle, but I think it's real.
The former says that there is (or was, or will be) an answer, but the
respondent can't give it now. The latter says that there is a known
answer, and the answer is not to have a particular feeling/opinion.<br />
<br />
The "don't know/don't remember" answer is actually more informative
than a missing (non-response) answer, since a non-response could be in any of
these non-response categories. If possible, and if the sample size
supports it, it could be used as a third category beyond a yes/no binary.
(For example, perhaps people who say they don't remember ever driving drunk are
definitely more likely to have had an auto accident in the last year than those
who say "no," but also substantially less likely to have done so than
those who say "yes.")<br />
<br />
I first learned about these types of non-response from my mother, who worked in
survey research. She was adamant that her surveys should include Don't
Know, and DNA (does not apply) options for questions along with NA (no answer), to
remove at least some of the reasons for people to feel that they had to leave a
question blank because they couldn't or wouldn't answer. Partial information
is better than the dreaded DNR (Did Not Reply), which tells you nothing. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12.0pt;">By the
same token, I cringe whenever I see computer-administered Likert-scale survey
questions that not only have no option for not answering (or indicating
non-applicability), but have an even number of response options, thus not even
allowing for "no preference."</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-43948849013902741262012-12-11T09:17:00.000-08:002013-06-26T22:03:25.189-07:00STUDENT RESEARCH PAPERS, Rules & Tips<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">RULES
AND TIPS FOR STUDENT RESEARCH PAPERS</b></h1>
<h2 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Prof.
W. Paul Vogt</b></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">Some colleagues have asked for an electronic copy of this document, one that their students could access online. Here it is.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>The
Three-Word Rule</u></b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
You must not copy more than three words in a row from one of
your sources without (a) putting those words between quotation marks and (b)
citing the source of the quotation.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Failing
to abide by this rule is by far the most common form of plagiarism on
student papers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The penalties can be
severe, especially for repeat offenders.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>The 20%
Rule</u></b>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
No more than 20% of you paper should be composed of
quotations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When grading your papers, I
am not interested in how accurately you can copy another’s words, rather I am
interested in how well you can present evidence and how clearly you can think
about it and express it in <i>your </i>words.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Quotations
should be resorted to only in special circumstances, for example:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(a) when the author has said something in a
distinctive way that can only be preserved by retaining his/her original
words;<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or (b) when you intend to analyze
extensively a particular passage.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>YOU must
write your paper</u></b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This is a logical consequence of following Rules 1 and
2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, and more obvious, you may not
turn in the work of another as your own.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>A
Separate Paper for Each Assignment</u></b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While you may build upon work you have done in other
courses-—indeed you are encouraged to do so—it is a violation of university
rules (and ordinary norms of honesty) to hand in the same work for two
different assignments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(The faculty <u>does</u>
occasionally cross-check.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>The ONLY
Criterion for a Citation System</u>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The criterion: If your reader can <u>easily</u> check your sources for
accuracy, the system is good.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If your
reader cannot do so, the system is bad.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Specific format matters little if it meets this criterion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Suggestions about picking a format: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(a)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Follow
the format used by an author you like.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(b)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Or,
use the format insisted upon by one of your other professors (I hear tell that
some believe it is very important to capitalize only the first word in a title,
while others say all words in a title should be capitalized; and apparently
many think it is crucial to give an author’s full name while others, with equal
passion, argue for last name and initials only.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(c)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Or
buy a manual.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Among the better known
manuals the two most widely used (and available in bookstores) are probably
Kate Turabian’s and the American Psychological Association’s.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In short, pick a convenient citation style and use it
consistently.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
To meet the criterion, (your reader can easily check) citations
need to include:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(a)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>the
name of the author</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(b)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>the
title of the publication</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(c)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>the
place published (for a periodical this means: name, volume, and page numbers)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(d)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>for
a book the name and place of the publisher</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(e)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>the
date of the publication.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The same information must be included for sources obtained
on the internet.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, for
internet/www sources, you need to provide the “web address,” i.e., the
URL.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Giving the URL only is not enough;
you need to include the author, title, etc. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Including only the URL would be like
responding to the question, “What book did you read?” by saying, “it’s on the
third floor of the library, northeast corner, second shelf from the top, 8<sup>th</sup>
book from the right.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You have to tell your reader <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">what</i> it is not just <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">where</i> it is.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>When to
Cite Page Numbers</u>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Always</u> give page numbers (as well as author, title,
etc.) when citing a quotation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cite page
numbers whenever your information comes from specific pages of a source.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When in doubt, it is safest to include the
page numbers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the other hand, if you
are referring to a general idea found throughout the source, page numbers may
be omitted.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Complete
Citations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Give full information for a source you cite.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most common form of incomplete citation
occurs when the paper refers to a work, such as (Smith, 2009), but Smith does
not appear in the Bibliography or Reference List.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such errors seem most often to be a result of
students mindlessly copying (i.e., plagiarizing, see Rule 1) from some source
that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">does</i> list Smith in its reference
list.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Justification
of Sources</u></b>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
You should use not only <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">some</i>
sources, but they should be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">good </i>sources.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You will often need to explain (briefly) why
these sources are good ones.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, if
you decide <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">not</i> to use some obvious,
well-known source on your subject (such as a classic in the field or such as
one of our course texts), you need a reason for this omission.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If your
paper is a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">review of literature</i> on a
subject, or contains such a review, as it almost inevitably will, be sure to
indicate how you selected the particular groups of works you are
analyzing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you use a standard index
such as SOCIOFILE or PsychINFO or Google Scholar, it is important to say (briefly) how you used
it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What key words did you use in your
search, how many sources did you find, and what criteria did you use for
selecting among those sources?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Widely used, but inappropriate criteria for selecting
sources include:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(a)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>the
first ten I found,</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(b)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>all
those that agreed with me</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">(c)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>the
ones that were easiest to read.</div>
<div style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .75pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;">
</div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h3>
TIPS FOR HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR FIRST DRAFT</h3>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Not many people can write a good paper in one draft. For most writers, rewriting is the key to good quality. Here are some suggestions for deciding how to revise drafts.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Imagine
that you believe the opposite of what you are arguing in your paper.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Read it from that critical standpoint to spot
weaknesses so you can fix them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
form of “role playing” is an indispensable intellectual tool.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Note:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>if you cannot imagine what the opposite of your argument would be, this
is a sure sign that you are in one of several kinds of trouble and need help
with your topic.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Have
a friend read your paper.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Quiz him/her
about what it says.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What s/he does not
understand is almost certainly <i>your</i> fault.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Fix it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Pick a smart friend and
be very appreciative of his/her criticism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>If your friend only says nice things about your paper to make you feel
good, s/he is not taking your or your paper seriously.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span>Read
your paper to yourself, aloud.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reading
aloud often help authors hear problems that otherwise would have slipped by unnoticed.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-76845880852925052032012-03-03T11:53:00.000-08:002012-03-03T11:53:04.732-08:00Quantitative Research Methods, missing data<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 18.0pt;">Quantitative Research Methods</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 18.0pt;">Data Correction</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">My book, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Quantitative Research Methods for Professionals</i> (Allyn & Bacon 2007) contains an incomplete data table.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The publisher planned to correct the error in subsequent printings, but has not done so.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the data in that table are used for many exercises, the omission has troubled several readers, and they have written me asking for the missing information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I post it here.</span></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">Table 2.4 on page 28 is missing the last 3 cases or rows of data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here is the complete data set. Happy calculating!</span></div><div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle"><br />
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" SemiHidden="false"
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UnhideWhenUsed="false" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Emphasis"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Subtle Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Intense Reference"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" SemiHidden="false"
UnhideWhenUsed="false" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" Name="Bibliography"/> <w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-qformat:yes;
mso-style-parent:"";
mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;
mso-para-margin-top:0in;
mso-para-margin-right:0in;
mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt;
mso-para-margin-left:0in;
line-height:115%;
mso-pagination:widow-orphan;
font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";}
</style> <![endif]--> </div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: 4.7pt; width: 448px;"><tbody>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">exam1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">exam2</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">paper</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">project</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">license</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">gender</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">major</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">89</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">73</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">74</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">92</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">91</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">89</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">71</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">83</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">82</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">97</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">84</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">72</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">82</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">94</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">87</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">76</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">89</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">76</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">70</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">83</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">99</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">84</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">74</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">74</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">86</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">70</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">70</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">70</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">86</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">89</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">94</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 15;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">87</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">86</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 16;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">78</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">94</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 17;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">76</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">74</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 18;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">99</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">100</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 19;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">100</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">100</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 20;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">65</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 21;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">83</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 22;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">91</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">71</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 23;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">97</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 24;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">76</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">98</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">82</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 25;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">82</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">84</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">83</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">83</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 26;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">99</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">95</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">91</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">82</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">94</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 27;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">72</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">89</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 28;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">86</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">84</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">97</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">74</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 29;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">76</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">79</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 30;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">81</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">98</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 31;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">92</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">94</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">82</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">99</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 32;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">77</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">75</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">91</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">84</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">80</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 33;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">86</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">84</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">70</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">85</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">2</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 34;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">94</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">93</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">96</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">50</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">90</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">1</span></div></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 15.0pt; mso-yfti-irow: 35; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">73</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">73</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">70</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">88</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">78</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">0</span></div></td> <td nowrap="nowrap" style="height: 15.0pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 48.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="64"> <div align="right" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: right;"><span style="color: black; mso-ascii-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-font-family: Calibri;">3</span></div></td> </tr>
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</div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-77340115253351344902012-03-03T10:34:00.000-08:002012-03-03T10:34:46.166-08:00NEW BOOK ON RESEARCH DESIGN<div class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">When to Use What Research Design</span></i></b><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"> has just been published by Guilford Press. As we wrote the book, my colleagues and I tried to answer one central question: How can researchers make effective choices among numerous methods as they move from research questions to designs? The book contains practical guidelines that start with research problems and lead to increasingly more detailed decisions as the investigator moves through stages of the research design: data collection, finding and sampling participants, research ethics, and initial data coding. A companion volume, called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Selecting the Right Analysis for Your Data,</i> is well under way. We plan to publish in 2013. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">When to Use What Research Design </span></i></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">W. Paul Vogt, Dianne C. Gardner, and Lynne M. Haeffele </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">New York: Guilford Press, 2012.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Systematic, practical, and accessible, this is the first book to focus on finding the most defensible design for a particular research question. Thoughtful guidelines are provided for weighing the advantages and disadvantages of various methods, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs. The book can be read sequentially or readers can dip into chapters on specific stages of research (basic design choices, selecting and sampling participants, addressing ethical issues) or data collection methods (surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, archival studies, and combined methods). Many chapter headings and subheadings are written as questions, helping readers quickly find the answers they need to make informed choices that will affect the later analysis and interpretation of their data.<br />
<br />
Useful features include:</span></div><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Easy-to-navigate part and chapter structure. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Engaging research examples from a variety of fields. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">End-of-chapter tables that summarize the main points covered. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Detailed suggestions for further reading at the end of each chapter. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Integration of data collection, sampling, and research ethics in one volume. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Comprehensive glossary. </span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">For more details go to: <a href="http://www.guilford.com/p/vogt">www.guilford.com<span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">/p/vogt</span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"> </span><span style="color: #222222; font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-52885101222908390172011-07-28T09:16:00.000-07:002011-07-28T09:16:32.146-07:00CONGRATULATIONS! IT'S A PARADOX<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">A Correlation Paradox</span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Paradoxes pop up pretty often in quantitative research—more than most of us realize.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They can be wonderful things—surprising, puzzling, even funny.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And they are often instructive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I discovered the correlation paradox when studying trends in state support for public higher education.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My colleagues and I were discussing the best way to demonstrate trends in our data, and someone said, how about a correlation between state income and higher education spending?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I said “sure, let me call up the data and see what we get.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A minute later, when the answer appeared on the screen, one colleague (who didn’t like me) beamed maliciously; he said “that’s impossible; as we all know blah, blah, blah.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The smartest among us said nothing, but she did utter a barely audible “harrumph.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The project director said, playfully I think, “So Paul, remind me again, how much are we paying you?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The statistical result I projected onto the screen, the correlation I calculated, seemed impossible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Everybody thought I must have made an error.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And I did too.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But it wasn’t an error.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was a paradox.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To describe it, I’ll sketch in some background information.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">A correlation is a co-relation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is a measure of the association between two things (called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">variables</i>). The correlation is a number (called a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">coefficient</i>) between zero and 1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When there is no relation between the two things, the number is zero.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the relation is perfect the coefficient is 1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An example of a strong correlation might be the ages and heights of the children in a pediatrician’s practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The older children would usually be taller; the younger would usually be shorter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There might be some exceptions, but a strong general pattern would probably hold. The correlation might be around 0.75, not perfect (which would be 1.0), but pretty strong.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That’s obviously because when age goes up so too does height.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When two variables, such as age and height, move in the same direction, this is called a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">direct</i> relation or a positive correlation.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Sometimes correlations are “inverse.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When one thing goes up the other goes down.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, when the price of gasoline goes up the sales of gas guzzlers goes down.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The numbers used to describe the relation between cost of gas and sales of gas hogs are the same—they range from 0 to 1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The only difference is that with an inverse relation the number is negative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It might be around −0.75.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the number used to describe them is negative, such inverse relations are often called “negative correlations.” <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That is not because there is anything undesirable about them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The negative number is just a way to describe an inverse relation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, the more people exercise the less likely they are to have heart attacks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because the amount of exercise and the number of heart attacks go in opposite directions, they are negatively correlated, but more exercise and fewer deaths are “positive” things.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">These are very well known statistical facts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My students almost always get them right on exams.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So where does the paradox described above come in?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It occurs with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">trend</i> data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When studying trend data, variables that are moving in opposite directions over time do not always, as they “should,” have a negative correlation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This ought to be impossible—by definition:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the correlation coefficient describing the association between two variables moving in opposite directions <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">must</i> be negative. However, when looking at the trend data for two variables that are clearly moving in opposite directions, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sometimes</i> the correlation is positive, not negative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That is the paradox.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A paradox is something that is very surprising, because it is impossible by definition or by logic, but actually seems to be true.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">I was shocked (and embarrassed) the first time I encountered a positive correlation between variables that I <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">knew</i> were moving in opposite directions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My surprised colleagues and I were working on a project studying correlations between trends in states’ incomes—Gross State Product or GSP—with state appropriations for public higher education.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many states, the trend over the years in state income was clearly upward, but the trend in state spending on higher education was just as clearly downward over the decades we studied.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the correlation between the two variables really was positive, not negative—despite the fact that they were moving in opposite directions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">My colleagues were very surprised. They thought I had made some stupid mistake.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And I even thought I must have messed up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I recalculated the correlations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I made sure I had entered the data correctly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I double checked to make sure I had pointed at and clicked the right options in the software.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I even calculated the correlations by hand—for the first time in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">many </i>years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the correlation would not change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The correlation between two variables moving in opposite directions remained positive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">So what happened?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What caused the paradoxical results?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Paradoxes like this are not unknown. The two most familiar among statisticians are Simpson’s Paradox and the related Lord’s Paradox.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Naturally I named mine “Vogt’s Paradox” (we do <u>so</u> love to name things after ourselves) and I described it briefly in my <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dictionary of Statistics and Methodology.</i><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4458180159555426831#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>The paradox is not much of a mystery once you know the source of the anomaly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the Simpson and Lord paradoxes, the correlation paradox has a fairly simple explanation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It can occur when <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">change scores</i> rather than absolute values are used to calculate the correlations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this case, what was happening is that when state income went up, so too did their expenditure on higher education, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">but not by as much</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When states’ income went down, spending on higher education went down too, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">but by more</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In most individual years the two variables (income and expenditure) moved in the same direction; that accounts for the positive correlation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">magnitudes</i> of movements were such that over time the two got further and further apart.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each year that the two increased, income increased more.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And each year that the two decreased, expenditures decreased more.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That accounted for the overall inverse trend. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Like other paradoxes, explaining it in words often doesn’t help.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It can be hard to see what is happening until you look at some worked out examples.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Simpson’s paradox, the Wikipedia entry has some good ones.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you want to see a small set of example data illustrating Vogt’s paradox, send me an e-mail (<a href="mailto:wpaulvogt@gmail.com">wpaulvogt@gmail.com</a>) and I’ll reply with a short document containing an illustration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
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</div><div style="mso-element: footnote-list;"><br clear="all" /> <hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /> <div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;"> <div class="MsoFootnoteText"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/post-create.g?blogID=4458180159555426831#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> 4<sup>th</sup> edition, Sage Publications, 2011.</div></div></div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-48625236222296788112011-07-14T14:29:00.000-07:002011-07-14T14:29:52.420-07:00Ten Evaluation Aphorisms<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size: large;"><b><u><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";">Program Evaluation:<span> </span>Ten Aphorisms</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Some months ago, I was asked to give a brief overview of the most important principles of program evaluation. The audience was directors of projects that had received federal funding to improve teacher quality through professional development programs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The talk was extemporaneous, so no verbatim text exists, but in response to requests for copies of the talk, an outline is posted here.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">The basic principles of program evaluation are simple. They are mostly a matter of common sense.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That’s why they can be summarized in aphorisms—pithy statements that contain a lot of truth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some might see the following as a list of platitudes or as an insult to their intelligence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Still, these simple principles are overlooked remarkably often.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In my experience when a project evaluation goes wrong the problem can be traced to ignoring one or more of principles sketched in these 10 aphorisms.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">If a program does not have a theory of change, it cannot be fully evaluated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Your project proposals say that certain planned actions will lead to specific outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Your theory of change explains <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">how</i> the actions will lead to the outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Without that explanation of how actions lead to outcomes, your proposals will have limited value as a guide to practice now and in the future.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">If you don’t know where you started, you can’t tell how far you’ve come.</span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Without baseline data you can’t gauge your progress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is easy to overlook the obvious importance of baseline data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Think of how often people forget to check the odometer before beginning a trip.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">If you want to measure change, don’t change the measure.</span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Multiple measurements are good, advantageous even, but to compare before with after use the same technique.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Don’t use an attitude survey for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">before </i>and a test of knowledge for <i>after--</i>or vice versa<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i></span></li>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To collect useful evidence, it helps to know what you are going to collect.</span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">It’s always good to be ready for surprises, but a data collection <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">plan</i> is essential.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you want to be surprised, you have to have expectations.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">If you don’t know how to analyze the data you plan to collect, don’t collect it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or change your plan.</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"></span></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Your time is too valuable to collect data hoping that it might someday be useful to somebody for something.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">To use the data you’ve collected, you’ve got to be able to find it.</span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">A data <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">management</i> plan is as important as a data <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">collection</i> plan and a data <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">analysis</i> plan.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Everyone loves a good story, but nobody trusts stories very much as evidence.</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"></span></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Narratives are <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">essential</i> in any good project evaluation, in part because they help describe causal processes (the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">how </i>of number 1 above), but narratives are not very effective for establishing that outcomes occurred or for estimating their size.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Statistically significant findings may not be important—and vice versa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Statistical significance and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i>-values can sometimes provide evidence of project success, but they are not usually the best evidence—even for experiments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Effect sizes and confidence intervals are better for quantitative outcomes.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 2.25pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">Nobody cheats on an eye exam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Why not?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because all parties have a vested interest in getting good data and drawing accurate conclusions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Project evaluation should be like that.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It should not be an adversarial relationship between the project managers and evaluators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 2.25pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 14.0pt;">This year’s evaluation is the heart of next year’s application.</span></i></b></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2;"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size: 11.0pt;">A rigorous evaluation of your current project is the best preparation for success in the next round of grant competitions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thinking about that fact might give you an incentive to persist when evaluation work is getting tiresome.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Remember that you own the evaluation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is not only for external compliance and to describe what you’ve done in the past. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It can help you plan for the future.</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-87390923622661215142011-04-25T21:31:00.000-07:002011-04-27T08:56:28.772-07:00The Paradox of Inquiry: Searching for Methodological Innovations<div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Fisher Fuller has posted another comment. He is certainly persistent in by demanding that I specify the criteria we used to define and select methodological innovations. That’s challenging but fair. It’s challenging because, as I suspect he already guessed, we did not know at the outset exactly what we meant by an “innovation in social research methods.” I copy and paste his comment below.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in;"><i><span lang="EN-GB">Vogt did not reveal any criteria for deciding what is and is not an innovation in research methods. He only told us that he talked to some people and informally polled others. Consensus among friends and vote counting do not add up to principles of decision making on this important issue. I agree that Williams and Vogt discovered what seem to be some important innovations, but I disagree that they have a reliable method other researchers could use in the future to discover more.</span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Our method for studying research methods was more ethnographic and exploratory rather than confirmatory. We were studying, so to speak, the culture of researchers, specifically what they believed about developing and using new research methods. If one of our informants suggested that a particular method was an important innovation, we recorded it, reflected on it, collected it, and juxtaposed it with the beliefs other researchers shared. Then we thought about it quite a bit about our collection of beliefs and made our choices. That was the nub of our method.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">I doubt that Fuller will be satisfied with this approach. We asked people who we thought would know, and we paid careful attention to what they told us. Fuller is right that we don’t really explain how we knew whom to ask and what to ask them and what kinds of answers would be satisfactory. </span>Obviously, Malcolm Williams and I didn’t <i>know</i> exactly what kinds of innovation we were going to find, but we did have some ideas—some sensitizing concepts in Herbert Blumer’s terms.</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Fuller’s questions returns us to Plato’s <i>paradox of inquiry</i>. Meno asks Socrates, “How will you inquire into that which you do not know? What will you put forth as the subject of your inquiry? And if you find what you want, how will you ever know that this is the thing which you did not know?” While this view is sometimes described as one of Plato’s principles, Plato/Socrates clearly rejected it. Socrates replies to Meno that <i>we ought not to listen to this sophistical argument about the impossibility of inquiry</i> because it will keep us from actively seeking knowledge. Still, while Socrates dismisses the sophistical argument, he spends the rest of the dialogue trying to answer it. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">And exploratory researchers are still working on how to deal with the paradox of inquiry. It is a perennial question, one that is always worth asking and trying to answer. But any answer will be incomplete and temporary. Rejecting the paradox of inquiry, as Plato points out, is necessary if we are to be active seekers after knowledge. Plato’s argument, I think, can be read as ultimately being pragmatic. Rejecting the paradox and forging ahead—all the while remembering the kernel of truth it contains—makes critical inquiry and the growth of knowledge possible. Simply accepting the paradox chokes off further inquiry. The paradox’s threat to the vigorous pursuit of knowledge is especially great in empirical and therefore partly inductive fields of inquiry such as social research. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-22553927638035094702011-04-11T21:49:00.000-07:002011-04-11T21:49:42.084-07:00What is an innovation in research methods?Fisher Fuller raised some challenging questions in a comment, copied here:<br />
<br />
<i>I'm suspicious of the whole project. What is a methodological innovation anyway? How do you presume to be able to identify them? Are you trying to create another set of restrictive canonical guidelines? If you can describe an innovation in a summary chapter, is it really an innovation any longer? </i><br />
<br />
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">These are serious questions.<span> </span>Fuller is surely right that the idea of an innovative <i>canon</i> in research methods is almost a contradiction in terms.<span> </span>If it’s canonical it chokes off innovation. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">The short answer to the question of how we identified innovations in the Handbook is that we asked our colleagues, both informally in chats and more formally in some fairly extensive e-mail polling.<span> </span>We had discussions with anyone who would talk with us, starting with Chris Rojek, our editor at Sage Publications who originally suggested the idea for the Handbook.<span> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">We tried to be inclusive rather than restrictive in our understanding of what constitutes a methodological innovation in social research and we uncovered several broad classes of innovation.<span> </span>Here are some examples:</span></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Some innovations arise because new developments in social life and the need to develop novel ways of studying them.<span> </span>An example is Mike Thelwall’s studies (in chapter 9) of human communication on the Web.<span> </span>Another is Elizabeth Griffiths’ discussion of geographic information systems (in chapter 21).</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">A fertile area of innovatory growth occurs in fields that are not brand new but that are undergoing rapid development, often by generating links between separately developed methods.<span> </span>One such pair of methods, developing separately and together, is multilevel modeling and structural equation modeling.<span> </span>For discussions of their joint development see chapters 26 by Rex Kline and 27 by Keenan Pituch & Laura Stapleton.<span> </span></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">Combining methods is a common source of new ideas about old methods.<span> </span>An illustration is chapter 13 by John Hitchcock & Bonnie Nastasi on using mixed methods for construct validation.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB">A last example is applying a new method to an area of research where it had not been used before.<span> </span>For instance, Qualitative Narrative Analysis (see Ragin & Schneider’s chapter 8) is applied to program evaluation (see Vogt et al., chapter 15).</span></li>
</ul><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB"> We won’t be surprised to hear from readers who wonder how we could have missed this or that innovation or how we could have mistaken a short-lived fad for a new approach.<span> </span>We welcome such discussions, questions, and criticisms because they are a key source of further innovation.</span></div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-45763107626955924122011-04-05T08:21:00.000-07:002011-04-05T08:21:42.426-07:00New Book on Innovation in Research Methods<i>The Sage Handbook of Innovation in Social Research Methods</i> is now available (Sage Publications, 2011). Edited by Malcolm Williams and Paul Vogt, it contains 27 chapters exploring innovatory methodological approaches from conceptualizing research problems through data analysis. Further details are available at <u>www.sagepublications.com</u>. <br />
<br />
My chapter* is on "Innovations in Program Evaluation: Comparative Case Studies as an Alternative to RCTs." We argue that randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are seldom feasible when evaluating large-scale social and educational interventions. Further, "gold-standard <i>thinking</i>," which assumes there is one best method for all research problems, is a mistake because it discourages thought and restricts methodological innovation. Building on our research evaluating educational programs, we show how a comparative case study approach can be an effective alternative to RCTs. We illustrate by applying Charles Ragin's Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to the evaluation of projects in a large educational program.<br />
*Written with colleagues Dianne Gardener, Lynne Haeffele, and Paul Baker.W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4458180159555426831.post-52396500914533422732011-04-03T14:27:00.000-07:002011-04-03T14:27:58.243-07:00Overview<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> <w:BreakWrappedTables/> <w:SnapToGridInCell/> <w:WrapTextWithPunct/> <w:UseAsianBreakRules/> <w:DontGrowAutofit/> <w:SplitPgBreakAndParaMark/> <w:DontVertAlignCellWithSp/> <w:DontBreakConstrainedForcedTables/> <w:DontVertAlignInTxbx/> <w:Word11KerningPairs/> <w:CachedColBalance/> </w:Compatibility> <w:BrowserLevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> <m:mathPr> <m:mathFont m:val="Cambria Math"/> <m:brkBin m:val="before"/> <m:brkBinSub m:val="--"/> <m:smallFrac m:val="off"/> <m:dispDef/> <m:lMargin m:val="0"/> <m:rMargin m:val="0"/> <m:defJc m:val="centerGroup"/> <m:wrapIndent m:val="1440"/> <m:intLim m:val="subSup"/> <m:naryLim m:val="undOvr"/> </m:mathPr></w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:LatentStyles DefLockedState="false" DefUnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Posts and discussions of important topics in research methods in the social and behavioral sciences</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Helpful for users of Paul Vogt’s research methods texts, reference books, and other publications</span></div><div class="MsoNormal"></div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;"></span><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Contains discussions of and supplements to those works, including</span></div><ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i>Dictionary of Statistics and Methodology </i>(Sage Publications; 1st edition, 1993; 4th edition [with Burke Johnson], 2011]).</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i>Quantitative Research Methods for Professionals </i>(Allyn & Bacon, 2007).</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><i>When to Use What: Guidelines for Selecting Research Methods in the Social Sciences, vol 1 </i>(Guilford Press, 2011, forthcoming).</span></li>
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Source for insights and new information about research methods</span></div>W. Paul Vogthttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08340171371544266909noreply@blogger.com1